Lateral Line

Hither the lateral line, which is apparently used to notice prey, runs close to the ventral surface and is thus remote from disturbances caused by undulations of the dorsal fin.

From: Fish Physiology , 1978

Lateral Line Neuroethology☆

J.C. Montgomery , Due south.L. Coombs , in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2017

Abstract

Understanding lateral line office requires a background of lateral line beefcake combined with carefully crafted behavioral and neurophysiological studies. This combination, called neuroethology, provides the best insight into how an unfamiliar sensory system generates biologically useful information, and how this information guides behavior.

The lateral line is implicated in a broad range of behavioral abilities, including move and predation. Studies show a caste of segmentation of labor, non only between different submodalities of the organisation, merely also betwixt the lateral line and other senses, and provide insight into the nature of effective hydrodynamic stimuli, stimulus encoding, and fundamental information processing.

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BEHAVIORAL RESPONSES TO THE ENVIRONMENT | Anthropogenic Influences on Fish Behavior

K.A. Sloman , in Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology, 2011

Mechanoreception

The lateral line functions to discover vibrations and water movement and allows fish to orientate themselves in a water electric current (rheotaxis), gain information about their spatial environment, and also plays a vital role in schooling ( see as well HEARING AND LATERAL LINE | Lateral Line Structure). The sensory cells within the lateral line are known as hair cells and are also present in the ear. In the lateral line, hair cells are contained in sensory units known as neuromasts. Toxicants that interfere with hair-cell role, therefore, accept the potential to disrupt behaviors reliant on hearing and the lateral line. Ototoxins are contaminants known to specifically affect hair-cell function and include the pharmaceuticals such as gentamicin sulfate, streptomycin, and amiloride.

Trace metals may also interfere with lateral line function. For instance, banded kokopu (Galaxius fasciatus) exposed to waterborne cadmium prove a reduced ability to orientate in a water electric current. Waterborne copper exposure in zebrafish larvae reduces the number of functional neuromasts in the lateral line. In control zebrafish larvae, functional neuromasts can be visualized past staining with the fluorescent dye, two-(4-dimethylaminostyryl)-N-ethylpyridinium iodide) (DASPEI). Figure 2 (a) shows control zebrafish larvae with functional neuromasts running forth either side of the trunk in the lateral line stained with DASPEI. Effigy ii (b) shows zebrafish larvae exposed to waterborne copper before staining with DASPEI; a clear reduction in functional neuromasts can be seen. In consequence, zebrafish larvae exposed to waterborne copper during development accept a reduced power to orientate and maintain their position within a water current.

Figure 2. (a) Control and (b) copper-exposed zebrafish larvae stained with DASPEI illustrating the presence (in (a)) and absence (in (b)) of DASPEI-stained neuromasts. Scale   =   0.25   mm.

 Reproduced from Johnson A, Carew E, and Sloman KA (2007) The effects of copper on the morphological and functional development of zebrafish embryos. Aquatic Toxicology 84: 431–438, with permission from Elsevier.

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HEARING AND LATERAL LINE | Auditory/Lateral Line CNS: Anatomy

C.A. McCormick , in Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology, 2011

Lateral line nuclei

The lateral line nerves distribute mechanosensory input to a small nucleus caudalis and a much larger nucleus M ( Figures ane–3 ). Ascending projections to the midbrain ascend only from M and mainly distribute next to the acoustic midbrain area.

M, which is cytoarchitecturally circuitous, is capped by CC axons that provide a modulatory input to at to the lowest degree the most dorsally located Yard neurons ( Effigy 3 ). Terminals of lateral line fretfulness do not appear to attain these dorsal cells, but may synapse on their ventral dendrites in addition to neurons in other areas of M. Within G, mechanosensory input carried by the posterior lateral line nerve distributes dorsally/dorsolaterally, whereas anterior lateral line fibers from cephalic mechanoreceptors distribute ventrally/ventrolaterally. Thou gives rising to commissural fibers that supply its contralateral analogue, and, in addition to its major input to the midbrain lateral line area, other connections that have been reported in private species include output to the sensory trigeminal nucleus and various octaval nuclei and input from the ipsilateral sensory trigeminal nucleus.

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Fish: Hearing, Lateral Lines (Mechanisms, Role in Behavior, Adaptations to Life Underwater)

A.North. Popper , D.Thousand. Higgs , in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences (Second Edition), 2009

The Lateral Line

The lateral line has been 1 of the virtually enigmatic of all vertebrate sensory systems. Over the by 150 years, various investigators have suggested that the lateral line is involved in hearing, temperature reception, chemoreception, bear upon, and a variety of other functions. However, in the final few years, it has finally get clear that the lateral line is involved equally a sensor of h2o motion, or hydrodynamic stimulation, that arises inside a few trunk lengths of a fish. In other words, the lateral line detects the presence of nearby animals and objects that cause or disrupt water menses.

The lateral line is involved with schooling behavior, where fish swim in a cohesive formation with many other fish. The lateral line tells the fish where the other fish are in the school, and helps the fish maintain a abiding distance from its nearest neighbour. In experiments where the lateral line was temporarily disabled, the power of fish to schoolhouse was disrupted and fish tended to swim more closely together. The lateral line likewise is used to detect the presence of nearby moving objects, such as food, and to avert obstacles, especially in fishes that cannot rely on light for such information, such equally the cave fishes that alive deep underground. Finally, the lateral line is an important determinant of current speed and direction, providing useful information to fishes that live in streams or where tidal flows dominate.

The lateral line consists of two groups of receptors located on the body surface. One grouping is in canals, called culvert organs (Figure 4), while other groups are located on the body surface and are called surface organs. The culvert organs are primarily involved in detection of low-frequency (east.g., below 100   Hz) hydrodynamic movements of other fish, whereas the surface receptors announced, at to the lowest degree in some species, to provide fish with information about general water move and aid the fish in swimming with or against currents.

Figure 4. Longitudinal section of a lateral line culvert. Each fluid-filled culvert is open up to the exterior via a pore (P). A canal neuromast (SE) with its overlying cupula (C) sits on the flooring of the canal, with one neuromast betwixt each pore. The culvert neuromasts are innervated past a cranial nervus. From Grassé PP (1958) L'oreille et ses annexes. In: Grassé PP (ed.) Traité de Zoologie, vol. 13, pp. 1063–1098. Paris: Masson.

The lateral line receptors consist of the same sensory hair cells every bit found in the ear. However, the hair cells are organized into small groups called neuromasts, with perhaps up to 100 cells per neuromasts. The cilia from the neuromasts stick upwardly into a gelatinous canvas-like structure called a cupula. Bending of the cupula caused by the motion of h2o particles results in angle of the cilia on the hair cell and the sending of signals to the neurons which take signals to the lateral line region of the brain. In essence, the lateral line pilus cells are stimulated as a result of the net divergence between the motion of the fish and the surrounding h2o particles.

There is a considerable variation in the exact pattern of the lateral line in different species. Some species take a unmarried canal along the lateral trunk, while other species have multiple canals or even no canals forth the trunk. Perhaps the most elaborate canal system, and the most variable, is on the head of fish. The lateral line segments on the head enable surface-feeding fish to detect and locate the source of surface waves produced by prey and may be important for making fine-scale adjustments in position in fish that course specially tight schools.

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Volume four

John C. Montgomery , ... R. Ventura , in Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior (Second Edition), 2019

Abstruse

The mechanosensory lateral line is found in all fish and some amphibia and responds to hydrodynamic stimuli such every bit h2o movement and vibration. Biological behavior is all about mating, feeding, and moving about safely in between times, and hydrodynamic information encoded by the lateral line can play a critical office in all these behaviors. Examples include mating communication; detection of prey through the water vibrations, surface waves, or hydrodynamic trails; and orientation to h2o currents. Even though the lateral line is restricted to fish and amphibia, analogous vibration senses conferring similar behavioral capability also occur in reptiles, birds, and mammals.

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Physiology of Tuberous Electrosensory Systems☆

M.G. Metzen , ... M.J. Chacron , in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2017

Amplitude Coding in Moving ridge-Blazon Gymnotiform Fish

The ELL contains multiple segments devoted to processing tuberous input with the number of segments varying from species to species. The anatomy of an ELL segment in the gymnotiform weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus is shown in Fig. 6A. P-blazon electroreceptor afferents projection to pyramidal cells within the ELL. In that location are ii types of pyramidal cells: basilar pyramidal cells (ON-type cells) receive direct electroreceptor input on their basilar dendrites whereas not-basilar pyramidal cells (OFF-type cells) receive indirect electroreceptor input through local inhibitory interneurons.

Figure 6

Fig. 6. (A) Simplified beefcake of the ELL in Apteronotus leptorhynchus. Electroreceptors project to pyramidal cells: basilar pyramidal cells receive direct excitatory input while superficial not-basilar pyramidal cells receive indirect inhibitory input via an interneuron (GC). There are big heterogeneities in the pyramidal jail cell population. Superficial basilar and non-basilar pyramidal cells (SBP, SNBP) accept large apical dendrites while deep basilar and non-basilar pyramidal cells (DBP, DNBP) have small-scale apical dendrites. Only deep pyramidal cells project to the nucleus praeminentialis (NP) while all pyramidal cell types project to the midbrain torus semicircularis (TS). Almost interestingly, it is superficial pyramidal cells that receive the most feedback directly from NP via the tractus stratum fibrosum (TSF) and indirectly from granule cells in the eminentia granularis posterior (EGP) via parallel fibers (PF). The direct projection from NP to ELL is chosen the direct feedback pathway while the indirect projection via EGP is chosen the indirect feedback pathway. (B) Functional circuit for cancellation of spatially diffuse electrosensory stimuli. Both superficial and deep pyramidal cells receive input from electroreceptors that respond to both conspecific and prey-related stimuli. Conspecific-related stimuli are spatially lengthened while stimuli caused past prey are spatially localized and only the old activate the negative image that is received mostly by superficial pyramidal cells, thereby allowing these cells to respond exclusively to casualty stimuli. Information from these neurons is then sent to the midbrain for further processing.

More than recent studies have shown large morphological and molecular heterogeneities within the pyramidal cell population. Pyramidal cells are organized in both basilar and non-basilar columns each consisting of superficial, intermediate, and deep cells. Pyramidal cells are the sole output neurons of the ELL. While all pyramidal cells project to the midbrain, but deep pyramidal cells give rising to the feedback input that is received mostly past superficial and intermediate pyramidal cells. These feedback projections can account for up to 95% of synaptic input to ELL pyramidal cells.

The physiological backdrop of the classes of pyramidal cells are well characterized. Deep pyramidal cells accept broad tuning curves and the highest spontaneous firing rates (>35 Hz) while superficial pyramidal cells accept narrower tuning curves and the lowest firing rates (<15 Hz). Intermediate pyramidal cells have characteristics that are between the extremes seen in superficial and deep cells. Studies have shown that pyramidal prison cell tuning is both segment and context specific: pyramidal cells tin modify their tuning to match the temporal frequency content of both prey-related and advice-related stimuli.

Feedback pathways play of import roles in regulating pyramidal jail cell responses to electroreceptor afferent input and include cancellation of reafferent input, regulation of flare-up firing, and gain control.

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Lessons from the Zebrafish Lateral Line Organisation

Ajay B. Chitnis , Damian Dalle Nogare , in Principles of Developmental Genetics (Second Edition), 2015

fifteen.1 Introduction

The lateral line is a sensory system that has evolved to allow fish and amphibians to detect the design of h2o flow over their trunk surface ( Coombs and van Netten, 2006). Data most water menstruum is used for a variety of purposes, including the detection of objects without touch or "touch-at-a-altitude" (Dijkgraaf, 1963) and to provide sensory feedback during swimming. The lateral line system detects water catamenia with sensory organs called neuromasts, which are small cell clusters with sensory hair cells at their middle. Many contempo studies have focused on the Posterior Lateral Line (PLL), a part of the zebrafish lateral line arrangement, which has neuromasts distributed in a stereotyped pattern over the trunk and tail. Information from the sensory hair cells of the PLL system is conveyed to the brain by the sensory neurons of the Posterior Lateral Line ganglion located side by side to the ear. These sensory neurons accept peripheral processes that innervate the neuromasts, while their fundamental processes carry data into the hindbrain (Chitnis et al., 2012; Ghysen and Dambly-Chaudiere, 2007).

Formation of the PLL organisation in zebrafish is pioneered by the end of the first day of evolution by the PLL primordium (PLLp), a cluster of about a hundred cells (Figure 15.1A ) that migrates under the skin from nearly the ear to the tip of the tail forth the horizontal myoseptum (Gompel et al., 2001; Kimmel et al., 1995). During this migration the PLLp periodically generates and deposits 5–6 neuromasts (L1, L2 etc) to initiate germination of the PLL system (Figure 15.aneB). At the terminate of its migration it resolves to grade ii–iii terminal neuromasts (TN).

Figure 15.1. The PLLp Migrates From the Ear to the Tip of the Tail Periodically Depositing Neuromasts.

(A) Confocal slice through the PLLp in a transgenic Cldn:lyn-GFP embryo shows distinct changes in morphology from the leading end (correct) to the trailing finish of the PLLp. (B) Images of the migrating PLLp betwixt 28 and l hours post fertilization (hpf) showing periodic deposition of neuromasts (L1-L7, TN last neuromasts). The original fluorescent photomicrographs have been inverted to the create gray scale illustrations in A and B. (C) Schematic of a deposited neuromast showing central sensory hair cells and surrounding support and pall cells (besides referred to as inner and outer support cells).

 Adjusted from Moon et al 2011.

Each neuromast has sensory pilus cells at its centre (Figure 15.oneC). The sensory pilus cells are sequentially generated from central hair jail cell progenitors whose last division produces pairs of differentiated sensory hair cells with sensitivity to water movement in opposing directions. Support cells surroundings the primal sensory pilus cells. While providing structural support to sensory hair cells, the support cells also serve as a pool of undifferentiated cells from which sensory hair cell progenitors are sequentially specified during growth and regeneration of the neuromast (Wibowo et al., 2011). These inner back up cells are themselves surrounded past mantle cells (also called outer support cells). Proliferating curtain cells replenish inner back up cells that are lost equally they are specified equally pilus prison cell progenitors (Harris et al., 2003; Williams and Holder, 2000).

There are striking similarities in the mechanisms that make up one's mind the development and office of sensory pilus cells in neuromasts and sensory pilus cells located in our inner ear. In addition, the accessibility of this system and the remarkable power of neuromasts to supervene upon their sensory hair cells following damage has made the lateral line arrangement an bonny model for studying the biology of sensory hair cells and to place strategies for promoting regeneration of our own sensory pilus cells (Behra et al., 2009; Coffin et al., 2010; Dufourcq et al., 2006; Harris et al., 2003; Hernandez et al., 2006; 2007; Moon et al., 2011). Recent studies, nonetheless, accept shown that the PLL also serves as an extraordinary model system for exploring a wide range of key mechanisms operating during the self-organisation and evolution of organ systems (Chitnis et al., 2012; Friedl and Gilmour, 2009; Ghysen and Dambly-Chaudiere, 2007).

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Volume 2

Tatjana Piotrowski , in Handbook of Cell Signaling (Second Edition), 2010

Summary

Studies of lateral line evolution accept revealed how unlike signaling pathways interact with each other to control morphogenesis. On top of this cascade is Wnt/β-catenin signaling in leading cells, which initiates a feedback loop between itself and Fgf signaling in trailing cells. The brake of these pathways in regionally distinct domains ensures the coupling of neurogenesis in trailing cells, and directed cell migration of all cells within the primordium. An interesting aspect of how these 2 pathways collaborate is that each pathway induces the expression of inhibitors for the other pathway. This novel finding justifies the reinvestigation of the hierarchy of these signaling interactions in other organ systems.

Fifty-fifty though the verbal nature of the molecules might not exist exactly recapitulated in other organ systems, it is probable that the overall characteristics of these signaling interactions are conserved. Many of the genes that have been identified to be of import for lateral line development are also major players in cancer in humans. Nosotros therefore believe that, because of its relative simplicity and accessibility, the migrating lateral line primordium is a very valuable model for understanding signaling interactions in development and disease.

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The Evolution of The Nervous Systems in Nonmammalian Vertebrates

C.B. Braun , in Evolution of Nervous Systems (2nd Edition), 2017

1.12.2.1 Behavioral Functions

The mechanosensory lateral line is used past fishes and some amphibians to detect water motions (hydrodynamic stimuli) of animate and inanimate origin ( Coombs and Montgomery, 2014; Gardiner and Atema, 2014). The hydrodynamic scene is a rich source of information in the aquatic world (Mchenry and Liao, 2014; Hanke, 2014), providing data nearly the physical structure of the environment, the presence and motion of other organisms, and the directions and structure of currents. The mechanosensory lateral line extracts this data both passively, detecting impinging hydrodynamic stimuli, and actively, using distortions in self-generated carrier flow patterns to observe objects at a altitude. The lateral line is used by animals to detect currents (Schwalbe et al., 2016; Olive et al., 2016), prey (Carrillo and Mchenry, 2016; Pohlmann et al., 2004), predators (Stewart et al., 2014), and communicative signals from conspecifics (Butler and Maruska, 2015; Satou et al., 1994). The use of the lateral line to detect currents is too important equally a complement to other sensory functions (Braun and Coombs, 2000; Braun et al., 2002; Braun and Sand, 2014). For instance, sharks require intact lateral line systems to follow olfactory gradients (Gardiner and Atema, 2007), as do some teleosts (Baker et al., 2002), in what may be a very general mechanism of smell-gated rheotaxis.

Although currents and standing hydrodynamic features may extend over large distances and persist for some time (Niesterok and Hanke, 2013; Hanke, 2014), most hydrodynamic disturbances lose energy exponentially with distance and are only detectable at brusk range (Kalmijn, 1988a). As an active sense, some species use distortions in the self-created catamenia-field surrounding their body during swimming to detect objects at some distance from the fish, in a type of hydrodynamic imaging (Windsor et al., 2010a,b; Windsor, 2014). Detailed analysis of lateral line sources and hydrodynamic imaging are likely possible only inside few centimeters of the fish (eg, Windsor et al., 2010b), whereas object detection and localization can probably occur at greater distances. Because object analysis must use multiple neuromasts beyond the body surface, the distance range of hydrodynamic analysis depends on a range of factors including not but stimulus intensity, only besides the spacing of receptors and the overall size of the array (ie, body length). Nigh authors judge the effective range of the mechanosensory lateral line to be i or two body lengths of the receiving fish (Coombs et al., 1992; Van Hemmen, 2014). Although psychophysical information (Braun and Coombs, 2000) have shown lateral line detection several centimeters away (up to a trunk length), information technology is likely that the practical distance range for detecting natural prey items is limited to a range of a few centimeters (Palmer et al., 2005; Sichert et al., 2009), given high natural levels of racket and the rapid attenuation of stimulus intensity with altitude for multipolar sources (Kalmijn, 1988a).

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